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How does this all-female species reproduce? - Susana Freitas and Darren Parker

Video vocabulary

the

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US / ðə /

UK / ðə /

A1
  • article
  • Used to refer to something already mentioned
  • Used to show there is only one of something
  • determiner
  • Used to describe all of a family

be

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US / bɪ /

UK / bi /

A1
  • verb
  • Being

and

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US / ənd /

UK / ənd, ən,ænd /

A1
  • conjunction
  • Used to refer to two or more things
  • Plus; in addition; on top of that
  • Used to introduce an action that follows another

that

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US / ðæt /

UK / ðæt, ðət /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • The person or thing being talked about
  • Used to identify something both the speakers know
  • adverb
  • Used to reinforce adjectives and adverbs
  • To such a degree
  • conjunction
  • Used to connect a noun clause
  • Used to introduce an adverbial clause
  • Used to introduce a noun clause
  • determiner
  • Used as a noun to refer to something
  • pronoun
  • Referring an object far away
  • Used to refer to the relative pronoun ‘which’

have

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US / həv /

UK / hæv /

A1
  • verb
  • To drink, smoke, eat or use something
  • To experience the effects of something
  • To organize an event, or join in an activity
  • To own, possess, or hold something
  • To cause to happen or produce a particular effect

not

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US / nɒt /

UK / nɑt /

A1
  • adverb
  • Word indicating the negative
  • (Used to form the negative of verbs)

for

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US / fə(r) /

UK / fɔr,fə /

A1
  • preposition
  • Used to show the purpose, or need of something

this

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US / ðɪs /

UK / ðɪs /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Used to indicate something already been discussed
  • Used to indicate something happening around now
  • adverb
  • An indication by a physical motion or gesture
  • A specific amount of
  • determiner
  • Person, thing, or idea near you
  • pronoun
  • Person, thing that has already been discussed

with

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US / wɪð /

UK / wɪð, wɪθ /

A1
  • preposition
  • As an employee of a certain company
  • Against something or someone
  • By using something as a means
  • Due to; because of
  • Including
  • Possessing as a feature
  • Related to
  • (Of the manner/attitude by which you do something)
  • Used to express that people or things are together

about

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US / ə'baʊt /

UK / əˈbaʊt /

A1
  • adverb
  • To be ready to; going to
  • Nearly; approximately; roughly
  • Near; next to; close to
  • In every direction; in the area of
  • preposition
  • Concerning or of (a topic)

get

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US / ɡet /

UK / ɡɛt /

A1
  • verb
  • To become affected by illness or disease
  • To begin to feel or understand an emotion or idea
  • To send or bring someone or something home, etc.
  • To go somewhere to obtain something
  • To (cause to) do a particular thing
  • To obtain, receive or be given something
  • To currently have
  • To prepare for use
  • To understand something being said or read

but

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US / bət /

UK / bʌt,bət /

A1
  • conjunction
  • Used before you say something different, opposite

can

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US / kæn /

UK / kən,kæn /

A1
  • noun
  • A metal container for storing food
  • other
  • Able to; have the skill to; have the time to
  • verb
  • To have permission to
  • To be possible to do
  • To preserve food by sealing it in a metal container

they

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US / ðeɪ /

UK / ðe /

A1
  • pronoun
  • Two or more people, animals, or things

just

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US / dʒʌst /

UK / dʒʌst /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Proper or appropriate; as is deserved
  • Doing or being what is right or fair
  • Legally correct; having enough evidence
  • adverb
  • Almost; nearly
  • Exactly at the time of
  • Exactly (the same as, like)

what

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US / wɒt /

UK / hwɑt, hwʌt, wɔt, wʌt,hwət, wət /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Used to refer to a particular amount, or number
  • Used to place emphasis on a particular quality
  • adverb
  • To a certain degree
  • determiner
  • Question words used for asking for information
  • exclamation
  • Used to express excitement, shock, or surprise
  • Used to ask people to repeat something they said
  • pronoun
  • Thing or things that; the same kind as
  • Used to emphasize something you are about to say

all

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US / ɔ:l /

UK / ɔl /

A1
  • adverb
  • Completely; totally
  • determiner
  • Being every one of something
  • pronoun
  • 100% of something; the complete amount

like

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US / laɪk /

UK / laɪk /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being equal in status or kind to something else
  • Similar; the same
  • adverb
  • For example
  • preposition
  • Used as a filler; used to ad emphasis
  • In a way similar to the way something is done
  • Such as; for example
  • verb
  • To want to
  • To find something pleasing; to prefer something

will

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US / wɪl /

UK / wɪl /

A1
  • noun
  • Desire or choice of someone
  • Document saying who gets your money when you die
  • Strong desire to do something; determination
  • Desire to do something; strong wish to do
  • other
  • Used with verbs to express the future
  • verb
  • To leave property to someone after your death
  • To use mental effort to make something happen
  • Am (is, are) likely to do
  • To influence someone to do something
  • To make something happen by strongly wanting it

go

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US / ɡəʊ /

UK / ɡo /

A1
  • noun
  • A turn in a game
  • verb
  • To attend or be at a place
  • To do an activity
  • To function properly
  • To move or travel to another place

one

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US / wʌn /

UK / wʌn /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Used to refer to people generally
  • Being a strong example of (something mentioned)
  • number
  • Number 1
  • pronoun
  • You; we; people in general; someone
  • The thing or person previously referred to

there

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US / ðɛə /

UK / ðɛr /

A1
  • adverb
  • Used to illustrate the existence of something
  • In a particular respect
  • In that place or position, at that location

out

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US / aʊt /

UK / aʊt /

A1
  • adverb
  • No longer stylish (e.g. fashion)
  • Away from home, business, or the usual place
  • In a direction/movement away from inside or center
  • noun
  • Act when a batter cannot continue playing
  • verb
  • To tell people a secret

from

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US / frəm /

UK / frʌm, frɑm,frəm /

A1
  • preposition
  • Starting at a particular place, time or level

see

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US / si: /

UK / si /

A1
  • verb
  • To go on a date with someone
  • To predict whether something is, or will be true
  • To understand what someone says
  • To use your eyes to look at something
  • To visit a place often for sightseeing or pleasure
  • To visit or meet with someone
  • To find out by waiting or looking
  • To watch (a game, movie or TV show)

make

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US / meɪk /

UK / mek /

A1
  • noun
  • Product made by a particular company; brand
  • verb
  • To arrange or prepare something e.g. dinner
  • To get to (a place) on time
  • To gain the status of (teacher, lawyer, etc.)
  • To create something by putting things together
  • To earn a certain amount of money at a job
  • To cause or force a person to do something
  • To cause something to happen or be formed

think

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US / θɪŋk /

UK / θɪŋk /

A1
  • verb
  • To have an idea about something without certainty
  • To have an idea, opinion or belief about something

time

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US / taɪm /

UK / taɪm /

A1
  • noun
  • Speed at which music is played; tempo
  • Point as shown on a clock, e.g. 3 p.m
  • Number of hours, minutes needed to do something
  • Occasion when something happens
  • Period or occasion that something occurred
  • Period in history or the past
  • Something measured in minutes, hours, days, etc.
  • How long an event takes; duration
  • verb
  • To check speed at which music is performed
  • To choose a specific moment to do something
  • To measure how long an event takes, e.g. a race
  • To schedule something to occur at a specific moment

come

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US / kʌm /

UK / kʌm /

A1
  • verb
  • To arrive at a place
  • (Of mail) to be delivered
  • To move toward someone; go with someone
  • To reach a certain point or state

more

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US / mɔ:(r) /

UK / mɔr, mor /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • In addition; extra
  • Greater in amount, number, or size
  • adverb
  • To a greater degree; in greater quantity
  • For a longer period of time
  • determiner
  • Additional quantity
  • pronoun
  • A greater or additional number

when

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US / wen /

UK / wɛn /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Concerning or during the time something happens
  • adverb
  • Word you use to ask about the time, or day
  • conjunction
  • Although
  • In the event that; if
  • pronoun
  • Which time

some

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US / səm /

UK / sʌm /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Remarkable; very good (or very bad) in a way
  • Concerning a certain unclear degree, quantity
  • determiner
  • Used to refer to an unspecified amount or number
  • pronoun
  • Number of persons, things in a group, but not all

because

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US / bɪ'kɒz /

UK / bɪˈkɔz, -ˈkʌz /

A1
  • conjunction
  • For a reason

take

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US / teɪk /

UK / tek /

A1
  • noun
  • Filming of a single scene for TV or the movies
  • verb
  • To accept something that is offered
  • To use a method of traveling, e.g. a bus or train
  • To use a camera to make (a photo)
  • To pick up something and go away with it
  • To study a subject in school
  • To attempt to pass (an exam)
  • To require a certain amount of time, money, space

good

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US / ɡʊd /

UK / ɡʊd /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Proper, appropriate or right
  • (Of an amount) enough; plenty
  • Excellent; high quality
  • Acting well or properly; of moral character
  • In a positive or happy emotional state
  • noun
  • Advantage or benefit

how

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US / haʊ /

UK / haʊ /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • To what degree? in what amount?
  • adverb
  • (Used to explain the way to do something)
  • exclamation
  • For what purpose or reason?
  • (Used to ask someone or something's condition)

thing

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US / θɪŋ /

UK / θɪŋ /

A1
  • noun
  • (Used to introduce the reason for something)
  • Something you cannot remember the name of

way

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US / weɪ /

UK / we /

A1
  • adverb
  • Used to emphasize the amount of something
  • noun
  • Particular aspect of something being thought about
  • One of various choices that could be made
  • Particular existing condition or state
  • (Often long) distance or length of time
  • How something is done
  • Route to go to a place
  • Small street
  • Usual behavior, emotions or habits of someone

back

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US / bæk /

UK / bæk /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Farthest from the front e.g. in a classroom
  • adverb
  • Have returned to a place you were before
  • noun
  • The part of a chair that the upper body leans upon
  • Location at the rear of something
  • The reverse of side something
  • Area on the rear of your body
  • verb
  • To bet money on something
  • To go backwards in a car
  • To support and encourage someone or some cause

these

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US / ði:z /

UK / ðiz /

A1
  • determiner
  • People, things, or ideas near you
  • pronoun
  • The objects near the speaker

into

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US / 'ɪntə /

UK / ˈɪntu /

A1
  • preposition
  • Moving or going inside something
  • In the same direction as; in the direction of
  • So as to become; taking the state of

well

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US / wel /

UK / wɛl /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being in a fortunate, good condition or state
  • Healthy and in good condition
  • adverb
  • In an acceptable, proper, or successful manner
  • In a complete, total, or full manner
  • A great and considerable degree
  • In a successful way, in a good or satisfactory way
  • exclamation
  • Used to begin or continue a particular statement
  • Used to show you want to start saying something
  • Used to express that you are waiting for a reply
  • You say this to change the topic of a conversation
  • Used to indicate you are making a final remark
  • noun
  • Long deep hole in the ground to get water
  • verb
  • To cause your eyes to fill with tears

could

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US / kəd /

UK / kʊd /

A1
  • other
  • Past form of 'can' to mean have ability
  • Used to ask for something politely, or to offer

other

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US / 'ʌðə(r) /

UK / ˈʌðər /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • A thing different from that mentioned
  • determiner
  • (Something) else; not the first (one)
  • pronoun
  • Being the one and only thing of that category

over

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US / 'əʊvə(r) /

UK / ˈovɚ /

A1
  • adverb
  • Finished; no longer happening
  • Towards the ground/away from a standing position
  • noun
  • A set of six consecutive balls bowled in cricket
  • other
  • Finished
  • preposition
  • Showing the relation when a thing is above another
  • On or covering something
  • Above or across something
  • More than you need
  • From one side to the other
  • In the direction of; toward

even

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US / 'i:vn /

UK / ˈivən /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being equal in influence, power, possibility etc.
  • Being divided equally or fairly
  • (Of teams/contest) with similar chances of success
  • Smooth, level, or regular
  • Can be divided by 2; ending in 2, 4, 6, 8, or 0
  • At a regular, equally steady manner
  • Remaining steady and unchanging
  • adverb
  • (When this is surprising) as well; too
  • (Used to compare two things/stress the difference)
  • verb
  • To make something level; to flatten
  • To make something equal

actually

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US / ˈæktʃuəli /

UK / ˈæktʃuəli /

A1
  • adverb
  • Used to add new (often different) information

give

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US / ɡɪv /

UK / ɡɪv /

A1
  • noun
  • Degree of flexibility in something, a material
  • verb
  • To hand over or present something to someone
  • To cause someone to have or experience something

first

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US / fɜ:st /

UK / fɚst /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • 1st; Coming before all others in time or place
  • noun
  • Something that has not happened before
  • Position of the winner of a competition

who

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US / hu: /

UK / hu /

A1
  • pronoun
  • Which person
  • Used to introduce information about people

need

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US / ni:d /

UK / nid /

A1
  • noun
  • Thing you must have and cannot not have e.g. air
  • Thing you must have and cannot manage without
  • verb
  • To be unable to manage without something; require

which

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US / wɪtʃ /

UK / hwɪtʃ,wɪtʃ /

A1
  • determiner
  • Question word to ask about a person's choice
  • pronoun
  • (Used to describe something previously mentioned)
  • Question word to decide either, or

two

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US / tu: /

UK / tu /

A1
  • number
  • 2

use

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US / ju:s /

UK / ju:s /

A1
  • noun
  • Ability to employ something
  • Need to enable it to work
  • Permission to do something with something
  • Act of spending money
  • Operation of a machine for its function
  • verb
  • To have; to eat, drink, consume etc.
  • To need to operate or work
  • To operate a machine, e.g. a computer
  • To treat a person badly
  • To do something with, for a task or purpose

also

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US / 'ɔ:lsəʊ /

UK / ˈɔlso /

A1
  • adverb
  • In addition; too; in a similar way

their

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US / ðɛː /

UK / ðer /

A1
  • determiner
  • Belonging to them

than

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US / ðən /

UK / ðən /

A1
  • conjunction
  • Used to compare two things that are not equal

only

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US / ˈəunli /

UK / ˈonli /

A1
  • adverb
  • Just one; just that amount or thing; not more than
  • Not very important or serious
  • Just that type of thing, person
  • Short time ago; not before a certain time
  • conjunction
  • Except; but

work

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US / wɜ:k /

UK / wɚk /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Activity completed in order to make money
  • noun
  • The product of some artistic or literary endeavor
  • Everything created by an author, artist, musician
  • Activity you do in order to make money
  • Place of employment
  • Final product or result of a some labor or effort
  • verb
  • To bring into a specific state of success
  • To be functioning properly, e.g. a car
  • To do your job in your company or workplace
  • To make an effort to do something
  • To operate a machine or device

tell

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US / tel /

UK / tɛl /

A1
  • verb
  • To (strongly) advise a person to do something
  • To be able to guess
  • To say or communicate information to someone
  • To inform, but without speaking; indicate
  • To have a negative effect on someone
  • To order someone to do something; command
  • To recognize something based on certain signs
  • To report something to an authority
  • To explain something or teach someone something

kind

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US / kaɪnd /

UK / kaɪnd /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • In a caring and helpful manner
  • friendly and considerate
  • noun
  • One type of thing

day

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US / deɪ /

UK / de /

A1
  • noun
  • A period of 24 hours beginning at midnight
  • The period of time when it is light outside
  • Person's name

mean

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US / mi:n /

UK / min /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being good at
  • Nasty; unkind
  • Not liking to spend money; cheap; stingy
  • noun
  • Average of a set of numbers
  • verb
  • To express a particular idea or thought
  • To intend to do something in particular
  • To have a particular meaning or value

new

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US / nju: /

UK / nu, nju /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Not old, recently born, built or made
  • Being or doing something for the first time
  • Not felt, seen or known previously
  • Having been recently bought or obtained

around

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US / ə'raʊnd /

UK / əˈraʊnd /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Close to someone or something
  • adverb
  • Located on every side, or along something
  • With a motion that moves in a circle or a curve
  • Going here and there within (a place)
  • Turned or turning in the opposite direction
  • preposition
  • Roughly; approximately

call

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US / kɔ:l /

UK / kɔl /

A1
  • noun
  • A order or request for action
  • The sound an animal makes, often when in danger
  • A correct prediction, e.g. a decision in a game
  • A short visit to a place or person
  • A decision by a referee or umpire in a game
  • verb
  • To make a request or order for action
  • (Animal) to make sounds to warn of danger
  • To announce the date of an election
  • To make a judgment about something
  • To give someone or something a name
  • To guess in advance the result or outcome
  • To visit a place or person for a short time
  • To phone someone
  • To speak, announce or shout in a loud voice

year

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US / jə: /

UK / jɪr /

A1
  • noun
  • Unit of time equal to 12 months or 365 or 366 days
  • Used to refer to the age of a person

why

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US / waɪ /

UK / hwaɪ, waɪ /

A1
  • adverb
  • Question word to ask for a reason
  • exclamation
  • (Used to express surprise or approval)

before

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US / bɪˈfɔ:(r) /

UK / bɪˈfɔr,-ˈfor /

A1
  • adverb
  • At a time earlier than the present; previously
  • conjunction
  • In advance of something happening
  • preposition
  • In front of someone or something

last

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US / lɑ:st /

UK / læst /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Most recent; the latest
  • The one before
  • adverb
  • Final; with nothing following; after all others
  • Most recent; the latest
  • determiner
  • The one at the end
  • verb
  • To remain or continue for a certain period of time

great

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US / ɡreɪt /

UK / ɡret /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Very large in size
  • Very important
  • Very good; fantastic; wonderful
  • adverb
  • Very good; better than before
  • noun
  • Successful and well-admired person

many

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US / 'menɪ /

UK / ˈmɛni /

A1
  • determiner
  • Used to refer a large number of things

happen

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US / 'hæpən /

UK / ˈhæpən /

A1
  • verb
  • To take place or occur

leave

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US / li:v /

UK / liv /

A1
  • noun
  • Permission to do something
  • Vacation time; time off work
  • verb
  • To go away from; depart
  • To gift property to someone after you die
  • To allow something to continue happening
  • To let something remain unused or available
  • To let something or someone remain somewhere

after

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US / 'ɑ:ftə(r) /

UK / ˈæftɚ /

A1
  • adverb
  • Later than another time, or behind something
  • conjunction
  • Following something before
  • preposition
  • When an event happened or time has passed

long

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US / lɒŋ /

UK / lɔŋ, lɑŋ /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Large distance from one end to the other
  • Having many parts, e.g. a book with many chapters
  • adverb
  • For a large amount of time
  • noun
  • Person's name
  • verb
  • To have a strong desire for something or someone

end

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US / end /

UK / ɛnd /

A1
  • noun
  • The point where a process or activity stops
  • A point that marks the limit of something; finish
  • Goal or desired result
  • The tip, edge or limit of something
  • verb
  • To be the last part of something

might

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US / maɪt /

UK / maɪt /

A1
  • other
  • Used to politely request an action
  • Used to express that something could happen
  • Power, strength, force or influence

help

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US / help /

UK / hɛlp /

A1
  • noun
  • Something given to enable a person to do something
  • Assistance given to someone in need
  • Someone who makes something easier or possible
  • verb
  • To act to enable a person to do something; assist
  • To make something better or less difficult

different

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US / ˈdɪfrənt /

UK / ˈdɪfrənt /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Not of the same kind; unlike other things

probably

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US / ˈprɒbəbli /

UK / ˈprɑbəbli /

A1
  • adverb
  • That is likely to happen or be true

ever

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US / 'evə(r) /

UK / ˈɛvɚ /

A1
  • adverb
  • At any time; at all times in the future

point

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US / pɔɪnt /

UK / pɔɪnt /

A1
  • noun
  • An item to be discussed
  • Small spot or dot
  • Fact or detail
  • Feature of something
  • The size of the text on a page or screen
  • A certain time or stage in a process
  • Certain position in time or space
  • Idea or fact you try to convince people about
  • Measurement of scores in a game, sport
  • Sharp end of something, e.g. a pen or pin
  • verb
  • To face a certain direction, e.g. north
  • To indicate something with your finger to others

place

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US / pleɪs /

UK / ples /

A1
  • noun
  • Particular location, area or region
  • verb
  • To put someone in a particular type of situation
  • To put something in a certain location or position

live

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US / lɪv /

UK / liv /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being broadcast as events happen, not recorded
  • Carrying electric current; able to give a shock
  • Glowing because burning; hot
  • Not yet killed (for food)
  • adverb
  • (Music, drama) as it is performed
  • verb
  • To be alive
  • To experience a particular type of life
  • To make your home in a house or town

run

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US / rʌn /

UK / rʌn /

A1
  • noun
  • Journey between two places made by ship or car
  • Series of similar things or successes and failures
  • Act of running; exercise of running
  • verb
  • To depart or travel according to a schedule
  • To cause an animal to move in a certain direction
  • (Of an engine) to be operating
  • To start or use a computer program
  • To flow in a certain direction, like a liquid
  • To manage or operate a business
  • To operate or drive something
  • (Of a road) to go from one place to another
  • To move your legs faster than walking

while

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US / waɪl /

UK / hwaɪl, waɪl /

A1
  • conjunction
  • In spite of the fact that; although
  • During the time that; at the same time
  • noun
  • Short amount of time

own

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US / əʊn /

UK / on /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Belong to oneself
  • determiner
  • Yours, his, hers, etc.; not belonging to another
  • pronoun
  • (Something) belong to myself
  • verb
  • To have something as your property

few

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US / fju: /

UK / fju /

A1
  • pronoun
  • Not many, a small number

number

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US / ˈnʌmbə(r) /

UK / ˈnʌmbɚ /

A1
  • noun
  • Symbols such as 1, 2, 56, 793
  • Particular song or dance performed during a show
  • Total quantity or amount of things
  • verb
  • To put numbers on things
  • To assign a sequence within a group, series, set
  • To claim to be part of a larger group, series, set

both

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US / bəuθ /

UK / boθ /

A1
  • determiner
  • Used to refer to two things at the same time
  • pronoun
  • Used to refer to two things at the same time

set

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US / set /

UK / sɛt /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Prepared for something; ready
  • noun
  • Complete group of something
  • Place where a television show or movie is filmed
  • Group of games in a tennis match
  • Device that receives radio or television signals
  • verb
  • To make a clock state or ring at a particular time
  • To decide upon or choose something
  • To make something ready for use (e.g. table)
  • To decide on a price for something
  • To become hard (of glue, concrete etc.)
  • To be located in a specific place or time
  • To put (e.g. a vase) down carefully in a place
  • To put someone in a certain condition or state
  • (Of the sun) to go lower than the horizon

high

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US / haɪ /

UK / haɪ /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Excited or relaxed from taking drugs
  • Being of excellent quality or excellent standards
  • Larger than usual in number, amount or degree
  • Holding an important or powerful position
  • With a sound close to the top of the musical scale
  • Rising upward a great distance
  • adverb
  • At or to a place far above the ground
  • At a great value, amount or price
  • In a way that shows a lot of wealth
  • noun
  • (Weather) area of increased pressure

its

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US / ɪts /

UK / ɪts /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Referring to or belonging to ‘it’
  • determiner
  • Of something; belonging or related to something
  • other
  • Possessive form of “it”

may

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US / meɪ /

UK / me /

A1
  • noun
  • 5th month of the year
  • other
  • Used to express a desire
  • Expresses permission, possibility or probability
  • Used to show that a thing could be true

seem

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US / si:m /

UK / sim /

A1
  • verb
  • To appear to be something

without

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US / wɪˈðaʊt /

UK / wɪðˈaʊt, wɪθ- /

A1
  • preposition
  • Not with; not having

hand

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US / hænd /

UK / hænd /

A1
  • noun
  • Cards given to a player in a card game
  • Piece of a clock that points to the time
  • Someone who performs physical tasks or work
  • Body part at the end of a person's arm
  • Help for someone performing a particular action
  • Condition of having power or influence
  • Member of the crew of a ship
  • verb
  • To give something to someone personally

reason

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US / 'ri:zn /

UK / ˈrizən /

A1
  • noun
  • Ability to think about facts and form a judgment
  • Explanation for why something occurred or was done
  • verb
  • To think and make conclusions in a logical manner

yet

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US / jet /

UK / jɛt /

A1
  • adverb
  • At a later time (used after ‘not’)
  • (Used to emphasize that thing is, will be greater)
  • Eventually; at a future time
  • Until now; up to the present
  • conjunction
  • Adding to what has been said, often as a contrast

full

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US / fʊl /

UK / fʊl /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Containing all the parts; complete
  • Containing or holding as much as possible
  • Having had enough food
  • adverb
  • In a direct manner; completely

under

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US / ˈʌndə(r) /

UK / ˈʌndɚ /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • In the same place as another thing, but lower
  • adverb
  • In a lower quantity or price than expected
  • preposition
  • According to the terms of an agreement or law
  • Managed or controlled by the authority of
  • Being of a lesser quality or amount than expected
  • Influenced or affected by something or someone
  • Less or lower in age, amount, size or number

exactly

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US / ɪgˈzæktli /

UK / ɪɡˈzæktli /

A1
  • adverb
  • No more and no less than; precisely

create

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US / krɪ'eɪt /

UK / kriˈet /

A1
  • verb
  • To make, cause, or bring into existence

half

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US / hɑ:f /

UK / hæf, hɑf /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Not complete
  • adverb
  • Partly; somewhat
  • noun
  • One of two equal periods of game time in a sport
  • The part you get when one is divided into two;

whatever

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US / wɒt'evə(r) /

UK / hwɑtˈɛvɚ, hwʌt-, wɑt-, wʌt- /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Referring to any particular kind, type, quantity
  • determiner
  • Anything or everything needed; no matter what
  • pronoun
  • (Used to dismiss what someone is saying)

lead

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US / li:d /

UK / lid /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being the main part in movies or plays
  • noun
  • Wire for electricity, computer, etc.; cable
  • Information that could help to solve a crime
  • Main part in a play or movie
  • Heavy, gray metal element
  • Rope used to tie something to stop it escaping
  • Act of being at the front in a race or game
  • verb
  • To show the way or guide others
  • To be at the front of a race or game
  • To travel in front of; go in advance of others

include

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US / ɪnˈklu:d /

UK / ɪnˈklud /

A1
  • verb
  • To make someone, something part of a group

fact

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US / fækt /

UK / fækt /

A1
  • noun
  • Something that is known or proved to be true

allow

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US / əˈlaʊ /

UK / əˈlaʊ /

A1
  • verb
  • To admit the validity or truth of something
  • To let or permit someone do something

especially

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US / ɪˈspeʃəli /

UK / ɛˈspɛʃəli, ɪˈspɛʃ- /

A1
  • adverb
  • More than usual; extremely

level

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US / 'levl /

UK / ˈlɛvəl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • (Sports) equal to another
  • Being steady and determined (e.g. a voice)
  • noun
  • Specific height of something
  • Amount of ability you have compared to others
  • Floor or deck within a building
  • Tool used to determine if something is lying flat
  • verb
  • To aim a gun at someone
  • To destroy a building; flatten an area completely
  • To make things flat or even
  • To make a score equal to another, in sports

entire

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US / ɪn'taɪə(r) /

UK / ɛnˈtaɪr /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Complete or full; with no part left out; whole

million

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US / ˈmɪljən /

UK / ˈmɪljən /

A1
  • number
  • 1,000,000

type

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US / taɪp /

UK / taɪp /

A1
  • noun
  • Printed letters or blocks used for printing them
  • Group of things or people sharing common features
  • verb
  • To identify something belonging to a group
  • To write by touching keys on a keyboard

die

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US / daɪ /

UK / daɪ /

A1
  • noun
  • Cube with dots numbering 1-6 on it used in games
  • verb
  • To cease to function or work
  • (Of a thing) to stop being used or done
  • (Of a person) to stop living

sometimes

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US / ˈsʌmtaɪmz /

UK / ˈsʌmˌtaɪmz /

A1
  • adverb
  • Only at certain times; occasionally

whether

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US / ˈweðə(r) /

UK / ˈhwɛðɚ, ˈwɛð- /

A1
  • conjunction
  • If something will happen or not

possible

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US / ˈpɒsəbl /

UK / ˈpɑsəbəl /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Being able or appropriate for a task or purpose
  • Having a chance of happening, or being true

must

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US / məst /

UK / mʌst /

A1
  • noun
  • Something that is necessary or required
  • other
  • (Used to state that something ought to be true)
  • Used to say something is required or necessary

future

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US / ˈfju:tʃə(r) /

UK / ˈfjutʃɚ /

A1
  • noun
  • Time that is to come after the present

food

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US / fu:d /

UK / fud /

A1
  • noun
  • What people and animals eat to live
  • Things taken in by plants to maintain life
  • A particular style or type of cooking, e.g. Asian

usually

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US / ˈju:ʒuəli /

UK / ˈjuːʒuəli /

A1
  • adverb
  • Normally; regularly

form

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US / fɔ:m /

UK / fɔrm /

A1
  • noun
  • Sports team or person's current winning record
  • Document you complete when making an application
  • Visible shape or style; type; kind
  • verb
  • To organize something such as a club or group
  • To develop; to come into a shape or substance
  • To make something into a particular shape

reach

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US / ri:tʃ /

UK / ritʃ /

A2
  • noun
  • Power or control someone has over something
  • verb
  • To come to or arrive at a goal or destination
  • To be long enough to get to a certain place
  • To extend a hand or arm to touch or take something

certain

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US / ˈsə:tn /

UK / ˈsɚtn /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Definite, fixed
  • Referring to an unspecified amount or quantity
  • Being sure about something; without doubt

count

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US / kaʊnt /

UK / kaʊnt /

A2
  • noun
  • Number of things added together, e.g. votes
  • With the number of crimes, knockouts, as stated
  • verb
  • To add things together to find the total number
  • To matter or be important
  • To include someone or something in a final number

stick

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US / stɪk /

UK / stɪk /

A2
  • noun
  • Long thin piece of wood from a tree
  • verb
  • To push a sharp or pointed object into something
  • To join together using glue or paste
  • To remain in one place or position for a long time

process

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US / prə'ses /

UK / ˈprɑsˌɛs, ˈproˌsɛs /

A2
  • noun
  • Dealing with official forms in the way required
  • Set of changes that occur slowly and naturally
  • verb
  • To organize and use data in a computer
  • To deal with official forms in the way required
  • To prepare by treating something in a certain way
  • To adopt a set of actions that produce a result
  • To convert by putting something through a machine

explain

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US / ɪk'spleɪn /

UK / ɪkˈsplen /

A1
  • verb
  • To make clear or easy to understand by describing

thousand

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US / ˈθaʊznd /

UK / ˈθaʊzənd /

A1
  • number
  • Number 1,000

totally

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US / ˈtəʊtəli /

UK / ˈtotl:ɪ /

A1
  • adverb
  • In a complete way; completely; absolutely

cause

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US / kɔ:z /

UK / kɔz /

A2
  • noun
  • Belief, goal or organization that people support
  • Reason for
  • verb
  • To make something happen; create effect or result

appear

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US / ə'pɪə(r) /

UK / əˈpɪr /

A1
  • verb
  • To be seen, become visible; come into sight
  • To seem to be
  • To act in a play, movie, or be mentioned in media

tough

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US / tʌf /

UK / tʌf /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • (Of food) difficult to chew or bite through
  • Very difficult to do or deal with
  • Having strict standards
  • Being firm and not easily bent or broken
  • Being strong physically or mentally
  • Being difficult to persuade
  • Capable of violence

manage

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US / ˈmænɪdʒ /

UK / ˈmænɪdʒ /

A1
  • verb
  • To survive hardships and difficulties; to cope
  • To run or operate a business by directing others

track

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US / træk /

UK / træk /

A2
  • noun
  • A circular course for running
  • Course or way someone takes, e.g. in education
  • Path in a field or a forest made by walkers
  • Often circular course laid out for car racing
  • One of multiple musical recordings on an album
  • Band surrounding the wheels of a tank
  • Metal lines that trains ride on
  • verb
  • To use marks to follow a wild animal
  • To move a certain way/follow a particular course
  • To record and examine the progress of something

double

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US / 'dʌbl /

UK / ˈdʌbəl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Concerning or intended for use by two people
  • Two times the amount or degree; twice
  • Made of two parts that are the same, similar
  • noun
  • Person that is exactly like someone else
  • verb
  • To be used for two functions at the same time
  • To make or become twice as much

common

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US / 'kɒmən /

UK / ˈkɑmən /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Shared; Belonging to or used by everyone
  • Typical, normal; not unusual
  • noun
  • Area in a city or town that is open to everyone
  • Field near a village owned by the local community

switch

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US / swɪtʃ /

UK / swɪtʃ /

A2
  • noun
  • A change or shift from one method to another
  • Thing you move to turn electrical items on or off
  • Thin flexible piece of wood or stick
  • verb
  • To exchange or replace something for another thing

available

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US / əˈveɪləbl /

UK / əˈveləbəl /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Present and able to be used
  • Able to be used at a scheduled time

develop

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US / dɪ'veləp /

UK / dɪˈvɛləp /

A1
  • verb
  • To explain something in steps and in detail
  • To create or think of something
  • To grow bigger, more complex, or more advanced
  • To make a photograph from film

eventually

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US / ɪˈventʃuəli /

UK / ɪˈvɛntʃuəli /

A2
  • adverb
  • After a long time; after many attempts; in the end

account

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US / ə'kaʊnt /

UK / əˈkaʊnt /

A1
  • noun
  • An advantage
  • Arrangement with a bank to keep your money for you
  • An invoice for things bought
  • Arrangement whereby you can use online services
  • A description, often written, of events; report

accord

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US / ə'kɔ:d /

UK / əˈkɔ:rd /

B1
  • noun
  • Agreement or harmony
  • An agreement or treaty between countries
  • verb
  • To be in harmony or agreement; consent
  • To give (someone) the respect due to them

require

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US / rɪ'kwaɪə(r) /

UK / rɪˈkwaɪr /

A2
  • verb
  • To demand that someone does something
  • To need to do something, to make it necessary

parent

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US / 'peərənt /

UK / ˈpɛrənt, ˈpær- /

A1
  • noun
  • Person's, animal's mother or father
  • Something creating other things of the same kind

remove

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US / rɪˈmu:v /

UK / rɪˈmuv /

A1
  • verb
  • To get rid of something completely
  • To make someone leave his or her job or position
  • To move, erase or take away from a place
  • To take something off (e.g. clothing)

stage

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US / steɪdʒ /

UK / stedʒ /

A1
  • noun
  • Place where actors or musicians perform for others
  • Particular point during development or growth
  • verb
  • To organize an event to gain public interest
  • To be fake or not real
  • To produce and perform a play or concert

decade

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US / ˈdekeɪd /

UK / ˈdɛkˌed, dɛˈked /

B1
  • noun
  • Period of 10 years

animal

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US / ˈænɪml /

UK / ˈænəməl /

A1
  • noun
  • A living creature that is not a plant or person

survive

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US / sə'vaɪv /

UK / sɚˈvaɪv /

A2
  • verb
  • To continue to live despite illness or trouble

individual

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US / ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəl /

UK / ˌɪndəˈvɪdʒuəl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Made for use by one single person
  • Having a distinct manner different from others
  • noun
  • Single person, looked at separately from others

gain

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US / ɡeɪn /

UK / ɡen /

A2
  • noun
  • An increase in something, such as weight
  • verb
  • To increase in something, such as weight
  • To get something wanted, needed or valued

surprise

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US / səˈpraɪz /

UK / sərˈpraɪz /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • That surprises you; not expected
  • noun
  • Something unexpected that slightly shocks you
  • verb
  • To do something that another person didn't expect

mother

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US / ˈmʌðə(r) /

UK / ˈmʌðɚ /

A1
  • noun
  • Female who has a child or children; female parent
  • verb
  • To take care of someone as if they were your child

mix

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US / mɪks /

UK / mɪks /

A2
  • noun
  • A combination of more than two things
  • verb
  • To combine two or more things to make one
  • To meet and get along with others, e.g. at a party

surprised

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US / səˈpraɪzd /

UK / sərˈpraɪzd /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Feeling a shock when something unexpected happens
  • verb
  • To do something that another person didn't expect

trick

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US / trɪk /

UK / trɪk /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Not reliable; likely to deceive you
  • noun
  • Act of trying to fool someone
  • Quick or skillful way of doing something
  • Something done to make someone laugh
  • verb
  • To fool someone in order to obtain a result
  • To playfully tease or fool to make someone laugh

wild

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US / waɪld /

UK / waɪld /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Living in nature; not tame
  • (Of land) not developed by people
  • adverb
  • In a manner which lacks control
  • noun
  • A natural environment e.g. jungle, forest

material

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US / məˈtɪəriəl /

UK / məˈtɪriəl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Relevant; (of evidence) important or significant
  • Belonging to the world of physical things
  • noun
  • Cloth; fabric
  • Supplies or data needed to do a certain thing
  • Substance from which a thing is made of

condition

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US / kənˈdɪʃn /

UK / kənˈdɪʃən /

A2
  • noun
  • Disease or other medical problem
  • The state of living you are in, e.g. good health
  • Something required in a business contract; term
  • verb
  • To improve something to make it better
  • To cause to behave automatically in a certain way

summer

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US / ˈsʌmə(r) /

UK / ˈsʌmɚ /

A1
  • noun
  • Part of the year when the weather is hot
  • verb
  • To spend time in a place in the warm months

generation

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US / ˌdʒenəˈreɪʃn /

UK / ˌdʒɛnəˈreʃən /

A2
  • noun
  • Act or process of producing or causing something
  • People born and living at about the same time

contain

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US / kənˈteɪn /

UK / kənˈten /

A2
  • verb
  • To keep something from spreading
  • To hold something inside something else

nature

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US / 'neɪtʃə(r) /

UK / ˈnetʃɚ /

A1
  • noun
  • Person's character or particular way of behaving
  • Basic look, feel or function of something
  • Physical world, including plants, animals, rocks

egg

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US / eg /

UK / ɛɡ /

A2
  • noun
  • Hard-shelled thing from which a young bird is born

demand

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US / dɪ'mɑ:nd /

UK / dɪˈmænd /

A2
  • noun
  • Desire customers have to buy product, service
  • A strong request for someone to do something
  • verb
  • To strongly request someone to do something

entirely

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US / ɪnˈtaɪəli /

UK / ɪnˈtaɪərli /

A2
  • adverb
  • Wholly; completely

confirm

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US / kənˈfɜ:m /

UK / kənˈfɜ:rm /

A2
  • verb
  • To formally approve or check something
  • To provide evidence to establish the truth of

scientist

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US / ˈsaɪəntɪst /

UK / ˈsaɪəntɪst /

A2
  • noun
  • Person who is trained in a science

combination

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US / ˌkɒmbɪ'neɪʃn /

UK / ˌkɑmbəˈneʃən /

B1
  • noun
  • Series of letters or numbers needed to open a lock
  • Act or result of mixing things together

otherwise

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US / ˈʌðəwaiz /

UK / ˈʌðɚˌwaɪz /

A2
  • adverb
  • In an additional or different way
  • Unless; or

cell

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US / sel /

UK / sɛl /

A2
  • noun
  • Smallest unit of living things in biology
  • Group of people - often from a secret organization
  • Prisoner's room in a jail
  • Shortened form of 'cellphone'

expand

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US / ɪk'spænd /

UK / ɪkˈspænd /

A2
  • verb
  • To make something larger in size, number, amount

population

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US / ˌpɒpjuˈleɪʃn /

UK / ˌpɑpjəˈleʃən /

A2
  • noun
  • Number of people who live in a country, area etc.

theory

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US / ˈθiəri /

UK / ˈθiəri, ˈθɪri /

A2
  • noun
  • Ideas or principles that explain facts or events

rely

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US / rɪ'laɪ /

UK / rɪˈlaɪ /

B2
  • verb
  • Depend on with full trust or confidence

worker

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US / ˈwɜ:kə(r) /

UK / ˈwɜ:rkə(r) /

A1
  • noun
  • Person who works

drag

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US / dræɡ /

UK / dræɡ /

A2
  • noun
  • Force of air pushing back against a plane car etc.
  • Boring or annoying thing/activity
  • verb
  • To reluctantly move or go somewhere
  • To feel that progress or time is moving slowly
  • To pull something heavy or difficult along the ground

bother

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US / 'bɒðə(r) /

UK / ˈbɑðɚ /

A2
  • noun
  • Problems, concern or worry for someone
  • A disturbance; trouble
  • verb
  • To cause problems, concerns or worry for someone
  • To take the trouble to do something

female

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US / 'fi:meɪl /

UK / ˈfiˌmel /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Person of the sex that gives birth to babies

associate

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US / ə'səʊʃɪeɪt /

UK / əˈsoʊʃiˌeɪt /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Part of a job title indicating a junior position
  • noun
  • Partner in professional work, e.g. in law
  • verb
  • To spend time with other people; mix with
  • To form a connection in your mind between things

select

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US / sɪ'lekt /

UK / sɪˈlɛkt /

A2
  • verb
  • To choose a suitable thing from a group

via

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US / ˈvaɪə /

UK / ˈvaɪə, ˈviə /

B1
  • preposition
  • By the means of using something
  • By going through, by way of

indeed

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US / ɪnˈdi:d /

UK / ɪnˈdid /

A2
  • adverb
  • Actually; in fact; in reality

sex

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US / seks /

UK / sɛks /

A2
  • noun
  • State of being male or female
  • Physical activity by which we produce babies

foreign

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US / ˈfɒrən /

UK / ˈfɔ:rən /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Being of a different place or country
  • Strange; different from ones found at home

creature

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US / ˈkri:tʃə(r) /

UK / ˈkritʃɚ /

A2
  • noun
  • Animal of any type

explode

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US / ɪk'spləʊd /

UK / ɪkˈsplod /

B1
  • verb
  • To express an emotion in a sudden and loud way
  • To increase in number or amount very quickly
  • To burst or cause to burst into pieces

context

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US / ˈkɒntekst /

UK / ˈkɑnˌtɛkst /

A2
  • noun
  • Set of facts surrounding a person or event

predict

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US / prɪ'dɪkt /

UK / prɪˈdɪkt /

A2
  • verb
  • To guess or estimate what will or might happen

mystery

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US / ˈmɪstri /

UK / ˈmɪstəri /

A2
  • noun
  • Quality of being strange and not understood
  • Book, play, or film about solving a strange crime
  • Something that is not known

male

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US / meɪl /

UK / ˈmel /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Characteristic of boys or men
  • noun
  • A member of the sex that fertilizes eggs

previously

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US / 'pri:vɪəslɪ /

UK / ˈprivɪəslɪ /

B1
  • adverb
  • At an earlier time

specie

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US / 'spi:ʃi: /

UK / 'spi:ʃɪ /

B1
  • noun
  • Singular of species

shocked

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US / ʃɒkt /

UK / ʃɑːkt /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Very upset by some unexpected event
  • verb
  • To affect someone with an electrical current
  • To cause great surprise, horror, or anger

birth

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US / bɜ:θ /

UK / bɜ:rθ /

A2
  • noun
  • Time when a baby or young animal is born
  • Beginning of something
  • Social position based on the family you come from

ones

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US / wʌnz /

UK / wʌnz /

A1
  • number
  • Number 1, a single person or thing

relative

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US / ˈrelətɪv /

UK / ˈrɛlətɪv /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Measured or considered in comparison to another
  • (Grammar) referring to words that appear earlier
  • noun
  • Members of the family
  • Humans or animals sharing the same family history

sexual

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US / ˈsekʃuəl /

UK / ˈsɛkʃuəl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Relating to men and women and their relationships
  • Of the physical activity that can produce babies

swimming

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US / ˈswɪmɪŋ /

UK / ˈswɪmɪŋ /

A1
  • noun
  • The act of moving through water
  • verb
  • To move through water by moving parts of the body

existence

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US / ɪɡ'zɪstəns /

UK / ɪɡˈzɪstəns /

A2
  • noun
  • State of being present, alive or real

observe

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US / əbˈzɜ:v /

UK / əbˈzɜ:rv /

A2
  • verb
  • To celebrate a particular holiday/religious event
  • To obey or follow laws, rules, or customs
  • To watch carefully; to make a comment

dragon

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US / ˈdrægən /

UK / ˈdræɡən /

B1
  • noun
  • Imaginary creatures that breathe fire

unknown

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US / ˌʌnˈnəʊn /

UK / ˌʌnˈnoʊn /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Not being known or famous
  • Being unfamiliar or not known
  • noun
  • Person who is not famous or known by many

analyse

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US / ˈænəlaɪz /

UK / ˈænəˌlaɪz /

B1
  • verb
  • To study carefully to find out the meaning of

handy

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US / 'hændɪ /

UK / ˈhændi /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Convenient, easy to use, easy to reach
  • Being skillful in performing small tasks

snake

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US / sneɪk /

UK / snek /

B1
  • noun
  • An animal with a long body, no arms or legs
  • verb
  • To move like a snake
  • To wind in a long path like the shape of a snake

default

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US / dɪ'fɔ:lt /

UK / dɪˈfɔlt /

B2
  • noun
  • Automatic setting when no indicated preference
  • Failure to meet an agreement or make a payment
  • verb
  • To fail to meet as agreed; failure to pay
  • To return to a previously determined state

compromise

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US / 'kɒmprəmaɪz /

UK / ˈkɑmprəˌmaɪz /

B1
  • noun
  • When you lessen your demands to get agreement
  • verb
  • To weaken your position or views
  • To lessen your demands so as to reach agreement
  • To put something at risk or in danger

discovery

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US / dɪ'skʌvərɪ /

UK / dɪˈskʌvəri /

A2
  • noun
  • Learning something for the first time

shark

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US / ʃɑ:k /

UK / ʃɑ:rk /

B2
  • noun
  • Person who lends money at unfair rates of interest
  • Large and dangerous fish with sharp teeth

rapidly

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US / 'ræpɪdlɪ /

UK / ˈræpɪdlɪ /

B1
  • adverb
  • With great speed; quickly

occasionally

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US / əˈkeɪʒnəli /

UK / əˈkeɪʒən(ə)li /

A2
  • adverb
  • Not very often; sometimes; seldom

unfold

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US / ʌn'fəʊld /

UK / ʌnˈfold /

B1
  • other
  • To happen, be told or be revealed
  • verb
  • (Of a situation) to be told or revealed
  • To open something that was folded
  • To move apart two things such as your two arms

genetic

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US / dʒəˈnetɪk /

UK / dʒəˈnɛtɪk /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Of, relating to, or controlled by genes

turkey

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US / ˈtɜ:ki /

UK / ˈtɜ:rki /

C1
  • noun
  • Edible bird resembling a large chicken
  • other
  • An event that fails badly or is totally ineffectual
  • Flesh of large domesticated fowl usually roasted

predator

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US / 'predətə(r) /

UK / ˈprɛdətɚ, -ˌtɔr /

B1
  • noun
  • An animal that hunts and kills other animals
  • Person preying on the weak to gain advantage

hybrid

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US / ˈhaɪbrɪd /

UK / ˈhaɪbrɪd /

B2
  • adjecitve
  • Formed from combining different things
  • noun
  • Something formed from combining different things

bacteria

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US / bæk'tɪərɪə /

UK / bækˈtɪriə /

B2
  • noun
  • The very small creatures that can cause disease

diversity

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US / daɪ'vɜ:sətɪ /

UK / dɪˈvə:sɪti, daɪ- /

B1
  • noun
  • Having a range of different races, ideas etc.

gene

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US / dʒi:n /

UK / dʒin /

B1
  • noun
  • Part of cell controlling development of a thing

accumulate

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US / əˈkju:mjəleɪt /

UK / əˈkjumjəˌlet /

B1
  • verb
  • To gather or acquire so that you have more of it

biological

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US / ˌbaɪəˈlɒdʒɪkl /

UK / ˌbaɪəˈlɑdʒɪkəl /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Being related to life and living things

beneficial

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US / ˌbenɪˈfɪʃl /

UK / ˌbɛnəˈfɪʃəl /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Giving an advantage, having a helpful effect

harmful

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US / ˈhɑ:mfl /

UK / ˈhɑ:rmfl /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Likely to cause damage or injury

fatal

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US / ˈfeɪtl /

UK / ˈfetl /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Causing death; having very bad consequences
  • Causing negative results

unclear

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US / ˌʌnˈklɪə(r) /

UK / ˌʌnˈklɪr /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Not easy to understand; not obvious

insect

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US / ˈɪnsekt /

UK / ˈɪnˌsɛkt /

A2
  • noun
  • A small animal with 6 legs, such as a bee or ant

undergo

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US / ˌʌndəˈgəʊ /

UK / ˌʌndərˈgoʊ /

B1
  • verb
  • To experience or endure something (bad)

ritual

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US / 'rɪtʃʊəl /

UK / ˈrɪtʃuəl /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Performed as part of a ceremony
  • Being done in a regular, expected or similar way
  • noun
  • Social or religious ceremony always done the same

organism

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US / 'ɔ:ɡənɪzəm /

UK / ˈɔrɡəˌnɪzəm /

B2
  • noun
  • Living thing, often one that is small
  • System with many parts that function as a whole

sexually

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US / 'sekʃəlɪ /

UK / ˈsɛkʃʊəlɪ /

A2
  • adverb
  • In a way or manner that involves sex

viable

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US / ˈvaɪəbl /

UK / ˈvaɪəbəl /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Being capable of living, growing, and developing

mexico

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US / 'meksɪkəʊ /

UK / 'meksɪkoʊ /

A1
  • proper noun
  • A country in southwestern North America, with extensive coastlines on the Gulf of Mexico and the Pac

curiosity

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US / ˌkjʊərɪ'ɒsətɪ /

UK / ˌkjʊriˈɑsɪti /

B1
  • noun
  • Something unusual and perhaps worthy of collecting
  • Eager desire to learn more about something

greek

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US / gri:k /

UK / ɡrik /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Concerning the culture and people of Greece
  • noun
  • Person from Greece

stunned

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US / stʌnd /

UK / stʌnd /

B2
  • adjecitve
  • Extremely surprised; totally amazed
  • verb
  • To greatly shock or surprise; totally amaze
  • To incapacitate using a special gun

reproduce

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US / ˌri:prə'dju:s /

UK / ˌriprəˈdus, -ˈdjus /

B1
  • verb
  • To make a copy of something
  • To have children/young; grow roots/new plants

lizard

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US / ˈlɪzəd /

UK / ˈlɪzərd /

B2
  • noun
  • Reptile with scales and a long body and tail

extinction

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US / ɪkˈstɪŋkʃn /

UK / ɪkˈstɪŋkʃən /

B1
  • noun
  • When every example of animal, plant is dead

pea

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US / pi: /

UK / pi: /

B1
  • noun
  • Round green seed, several of which grow in a pod

absent

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US / ˈæbsənt /

UK / ˈæbsənt /

A2
  • adjecitve
  • Not present at a usual or expected place
  • Without paying attention

abundant

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US / əˈbʌndənt /

UK / əˈbʌndənt /

B2
  • adjecitve
  • Being in very great supply; plentiful

mutation

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US / mju:'teɪʃn /

UK / mjuˈteʃən /

B2
  • noun
  • Change that changes genetic structure

autumn

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US / ˈɔ:təm /

UK / ˈɔtəm /

A1
  • noun
  • The season when leaves fall off trees

favourable

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US / ˈfeɪvərəbl /

UK / ˈfeɪvərəbl /

B2
  • adjecitve
  • When a good result or positive outcome is likely

meltdown

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US / ˈmeltdaʊn /

UK / ˈmɛltˌdaʊn /

B1
  • noun
  • Very large disaster, where everything goes wrong

sperm

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US / spɜ:m /

UK / spə:m /

C2
  • noun
  • Cell produced by men and needed for reproduction

fungus

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US / ˈfʌŋgəs /

UK / ˈfʌŋɡəs /

B2
  • other
  • Plant, e.g. mushroom/mold, growing in damp places

unexpectedly

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US / ˌʌnɪk'spektɪdlɪ /

UK / ˌʌnɪkˈspɛktɪdlɪ /

B1
  • adverb
  • In a surprising way because not expected

meanwhile

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US / ˈmi:nwaɪl /

UK / ˈminˌhwaɪl, -ˌwaɪl /

A2
  • adverb
  • At or during the same time; in the meantime
  • noun
  • Period of time while something else is happening

ratchet

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US / 'rætʃɪt /

UK / ˈrætʃɪt /

A1
  • noun
  • Toothed wheel with a catch allowing motion one way

aquarium

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US / ə'kweərɪəm /

UK / əˈkwɛriəm /

B1
  • noun
  • Building or tank for keeping fish and water plants

genome

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US / ˈdʒi:nəʊm /

UK / ˈdʒi:noʊm /

B2
  • noun
  • Complete set of genetic material in an organism

reproduction

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US / ˌri:prəˈdʌkʃn /

UK / ˌriprəˈdʌkʃən /

B1
  • noun
  • Act or process of producing a copy of something
  • The process of making children

lineage

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US / ˈlɪniɪdʒ /

UK / ˈlɪniɪdʒ /

B2
  • noun
  • People in someone's family who lived in the past

python

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US / 'paɪθən /

UK / ˈpaɪˌθɑn, -θən /

B2
  • noun
  • A large snake that crushes its victims

algae

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US / ˈældʒi: /

UK / ˈældʒi /

B2
  • noun
  • Green organisms that live in still water

shortcoming

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US / ˈʃɔ:tkʌmɪŋ /

UK / ˈʃɔ:rtkʌmɪŋ /

B2
  • noun
  • Fault or imperfection of someone or something

accumulation

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US / əˌkju:mjə'leɪʃn /

UK / əˌkjumjəˈleʃən /

B1
  • noun
  • Act of becoming bigger or more over time

fertilize

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US / ˈfɜ:təlaɪz /

UK / ˈfɜ:rtəlaɪz /

B1
  • verb
  • To make pregnant; to put sperm in an egg
  • To add chemicals to produce larger, better plants

mating

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US / ˈmeɪtɪŋ /

UK / ˈmeɪtɪŋ /

B1
  • verb
  • To pair a male and female so they have children
  • To join or fit two things together

captivity

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US / kæp'tɪvətɪ /

UK / kæpˈtɪvɪti /

B1
  • noun
  • State of being held against your will (in prison)

slither

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US / ˈslɪðə(r) /

UK / ˈslɪðɚ /

C1
  • verb
  • To slide down or along a surface from side to side

embryo

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US / ˈembriəʊ /

UK / ˈɛmbriˌo /

B2
  • noun
  • Tiny plant stored inside a seed
  • Early form of an unborn human or animal

hypothesize

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US / haɪ'pɒθəsaɪz /

UK / haɪˈpɑθɪˌsaɪz /

B2
  • verb
  • To come up with a theory to explain something

chromosome

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US / ˈkrəʊməsəʊm /

UK / ˈkroʊməsoʊm /

C2
  • noun
  • Cell structures that carry the genetic material

circumvent

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US / ˌsɜ:kəm'vent /

UK / ˌsə:kəmˈvɛnt /

C1
  • verb
  • To find an indirect way around an obstacle/problem

vertebrate

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US / ˈvɜ:təbrɪt, -ˌbreɪt /

UK / ˈvə:təbrɪt, -ˌbret /

C1
  • adjecitve
  • Having a backbone
  • noun
  • Animal with a backbone

untangle

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US / ˌʌn'tæŋɡl /

UK / ʌnˈtæŋɡəl /

B2
  • verb
  • To sort out a troublesome situation
  • To untie knotted rope, string etc.

nosedive

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US / ˈnəʊzdaɪv /

UK / ˈnoʊzdaɪv /

C2
  • noun
  • A sudden sharp drop or rapid decline
  • verb
  • To suddenly and sharply drop from the sky

gecko

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US / 'ɡekəʊ /

UK / 'ɡekoʊ /

C1
  • noun
  • Small chiefly tropical, nocturnal lizard

evolutionarily

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US / ˌiːvəˈluːʃənərəli; ˌevəˈluːʃənərəli /

UK / ˌevəˌluːʃəˈnerɪli /

B2
  • adverb
  • In a slowly changing and adapting manner

asexual

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US / ˌeɪˈsekʃuəl /

UK / eˈsɛkʃuəl /

C1
  • adjecitve
  • Without sexual organs; not involving sex

aphid

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US / ˈeɪfɪd /

UK / ˈefɪd, ˈæfɪd /

C1
  • noun
  • Small insects which suck the juices of plants

hybridize

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US / ˈhaɪbrɪdaɪz /

UK / ˈhaɪbrɪdaɪz /

B2
  • verb
  • To blend two varieties, e.g. of plants, together

komodo

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US / kəˈmoʊdoʊ /

UK / /

A1
  • proper noun
  • A small island in Indonesia, in the Lesser Sunda Islands, situated between the islands of Sumbawa an

fatherless

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US / ˈfɑ:ðələs /

UK / ˈfɑ:ðərləs /

B1
  • adjecitve
  • Having no living father

mayfly

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US / ˈmeɪflaɪ /

UK / ˈmeɪflaɪ /

C2
  • noun
  • Delicate insect whose adult form lives only 2 days

rotifer

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US / ˈrəʊtɪfə(r) /

UK / ˈroʊtəfər /

A1
  • noun
  • Minute aquatic multicellular organisms having a ciliated wheel-like organ for feeding and locomotion

katydid

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US / ˈkeɪtidɪd /

UK / ˈkeɪtidɪd /

A1
  • noun
  • Large green long-horned grasshopper of North America; males produce shrill sounds by rubbing togethe

parthenogenesis

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US / ˌpɑːθənəʊˈdʒenɪsɪs /

UK / ˌpɑːrθənoʊˈdʒenɪsɪs /

A1
  • noun
  • Human conception without fertilization by a man

whiptail

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US / /

UK / /

A1
  • other
  • Any of numerous very agile and alert New World lizards

mutational

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US / mju(ː)ˈteɪʃən(ə)l /

UK / mjuˈteɪʃən(ə)l /

A1
  • adjecitve
  • Concerning or resulting from mutation

sardinian

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US / /

UK / /

A1
  • other
  • A native or inhabitant of Sardinia
  • Of or relating to or characteristic of Sardinia or its people or its language
  • Italian dialect spoken in Sardinia; sometimes considered a separate language with many loan words fr

parthenogenetically

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US / /

UK / /

A1
  • adverb

parthenogenetic

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US / ˌpɑːθənəʊdʒəˈnetɪk /

UK / ˌpɑːrθənoʊdʒəˈnetɪk /

A1
  • adjecitve

smoothhound

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US / ˈsmuːðhaʊnd /

UK / /

A1
  • other
  • Smooth dogfish of European coastal waters
  • Introduction to Video Content
  • The birth of a smoothhound shark named Ispera at a Sardinian aquarium in 2021 left workers astonished. What made this birth particularly fascinating was the fact that Ispera's mother had been living exclusively with other females for the past decade. This raised the question of how an all-female species reproduces and whether Ispera had a father at all. The answer lies in a phenomenon called parthenogenesis.
    Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an embryo develops from an unfertilized egg cell. Normally, sexual species require the union of egg and sperm cells, each containing half the number of chromosomes needed to create a viable embryo. However, species capable of parthenogenesis have the ability to double the chromosome count of an unfertilized egg cell, allowing it to develop into an embryo.
    The existence of all-female species that reproduce through parthenogenesis challenges the conventional understanding of sexual reproduction. Previously believed to be rare, parthenogenesis has been discovered in over 80 different vertebrate species, including Komodo dragons, certain turkeys, pythons, and sharks. These surprising findings often occurred when females unexpectedly gave birth in captivity.
    Ispera's birth might represent the first recorded account of parthenogenesis in smoothhound sharks. Likewise, scientists have confirmed the occurrence of parthenogenesis in some wild snake populations. However, the extent to which fatherless creatures exist in the animal kingdom remains largely unknown due to the challenges of tracking and conducting population-wide genetic analyses. Despite the lack of comprehensive data, it is evident that parthenogenesis is more common than previously believed.
    The question that arises is why does parthenogenesis occur? While there may not be a definitive answer, scientists speculate on various factors that could influence this phenomenon. One possibility is that parthenogenesis serves as a reproductive strategy in the absence of suitable males or during times of low population density. By being able to reproduce independently, females can ensure the survival of their genetic lineage even without the presence of males.
    Another speculation is that parthenogenesis allows for rapid colonization of new habitats. In situations where a species encounters a new environment with limited population, the ability to reproduce asexually can enhance their chances of establishing a viable population. By not relying on the presence of males, these species can quickly multiply and adapt to the new surroundings.
    As intriguing as parthenogenesis is, our understanding of this phenomenon is still incomplete. Further research and genetic analyses are needed to unravel the extent and evolutionary significance of parthenogenetic reproduction in different species. The discovery of Ispera and other animals born through parthenogenesis have provided invaluable insights into the complex and diverse mechanisms of reproduction in the natural world.
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  • In 2021, workers at a Sardinian aquarium were stunned by the birth of a smoothhound shark, who they called Ispera.
  • What shocked them was that, for the last decade, Ispera's mother had been living only with other females.
  • But it's actually entirely possible that Ispera had no father— and the reason why that is also explains other biological curiosities, like the existence of an all-female lizard species.
  • Usually sexual species have sex cells that contain half the number of chromosomes required to create a viable embryo.
  • So an egg cell must be fertilized by a sperm cell to form two full sets of chromosomes.
  • But some species that have sex cells can undergo a type of asexual reproduction called parthenogenesis— meaning "virgin origin" in Greek.
  • In parthenogenesis, an embryo develops from an unfertilized egg cell that doubles its own chromosome count.
  • In fact, some animals only ever undergo parthenogenesis, while others can reproduce both sexually and parthenogenetically.
  • It's actually more common than previously thought.
  • More than 80 different sexual vertebrate species— including Komodo dragons and certain kinds of turkeys, pythons, and sharks— have surprised us by occasionally reproducing this way.
  • These discoveries were usually made when females unexpectedly gave birth in captivity.
  • Ispera's birth, for one, may have been the first account of parthenogenesis in smoothhound sharks.
  • Scientists also confirmed that parthenogenesis was taking place in some wild snake populations.
  • But just how many fatherless creatures are running, slithering, and swimming around out there is unknown: it's a tough thing to track without population-wide genetic analyses.
  • So, why is it happening at all?
  • Scientists think parthenogenesis could be evolutionarily beneficial in some contexts because, well, sex can be a drag.
  • Mating and its associated demands and rituals can be time- and energy-intensive, leave individuals vulnerable to predators, and even be fatal.
  • Parthenogenesis, meanwhile, requires only one parent.
  • Mayflies can sometimes default to parthenogenesis if there are no males available, which is especially handy because they've only got a day or so to reproduce before dying.
  • It can also help rapidly expand a population.
  • In the summer, when food is abundant, pea aphids can rely on parthenogenesis, allowing their population to explode under favorable conditions.
  • And in the autumn, they switch back to sex.
  • But some aphids, katydids, lizards, geckos, and snakes only ever reproduce via parthenogenesis.
  • So, why do other animals bother with sex?
  • Scientists hypothesize that sex makes up for its shortcomings with long-term gains.
  • It allows individuals to mix their genes, leading to greater genetic diversity.
  • That way, when the going gets tough, beneficial mutations can be selected and harmful ones can be removed without ending the entire population.
  • In a parthenogenetic population, on the other hand, individuals can only reproduce using their own genetic material.
  • According to a theory called Muller's ratchet, that's not good.
  • The theory predicts that parthenogenetic lineages will accumulate harmful mutations over time and eventually, after thousands of generations, will reach a point of so-called mutational meltdown.
  • At this stage, individuals will be so compromised that they can't reproduce, so the population will nosedive, leading to extinction.
  • We haven't yet seen this entire process unfold in nature.
  • But scientists have observed an accumulation of harmful mutations in parthenogenetic stick insects that are absent in their sexual relatives.
  • Only time will tell whether this will cause their extinction.
  • Otherwise, some parthenogenetic species appear to have ways of circumventing a mutational meltdown.
  • New Mexico whiptail lizards came about when two different lizard species hybridized, creating this new all-female species.
  • As hybrids, their genome is a combination of the different sets of chromosomes from their two parent species.
  • This gives them a high level of genetic diversity, which may allow them to survive long into the future.
  • Bdelloid rotifers, meanwhile, have been reproducing parthenogenetically for 60 million years.
  • They might have managed this by taking in foreign genetic material.
  • Indeed, about 10% of their genes comes from other organisms, like fungi, bacteria, and algae.
  • How exactly they do this is unclear, but whatever the trick is, it seems to be working.
  • To totally untangle the mysteries of reproduction, we'll need more research— and probably a few more surprises like Ispera.